SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

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<title>Javanese script</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Javanese script</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a>, <a href="Japanese_writing_system" title="Japanese writing system">Japanese script</a>, or <a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding:0.25em; background:navajowhite;">Javanese<br><div style="font-weight:normal"><span title="Javanese-language text"><span lang="jv-Java">ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦗꦮ</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="padding-top:0.4em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Script type</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.25em"> <a href="Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugida</a>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Period</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500s</span> CE – present</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Direction</th><td class="infobox-data">Left-to-right <span class="penicon autoconfirmed-show"></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a><br><a href="Sundanese_language" title="Sundanese language">Sundanese</a><br><a href="Madurese_language" title="Madurese language">Madurese</a><br><a href="Sasak_language" title="Sasak language">Sasak</a><br><a href="Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a><br><a href="Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a><br><a href="Kawi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawi language">Kawi</a><br><a href="Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Related scripts</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Parent systems</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="padding-top:0.15em;"><a href="Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian</a><ul><li><a href="Proto-Sinaitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Sinaitic">Proto-Sinaitic</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="Phoenician_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenician script">Phoenician</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="Aramaic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic script">Aramaic</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="Tamil_Brahmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Brahmi">Tamil Brahmi</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava script</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi script</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li>Javanese</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Sister systems</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Balinese_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Balinese alphabet">Balinese alphabet</a><br><a href="Batak_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Batak alphabet">Batak alphabet</a><br><a href="Baybayin" title="Baybayin">Baybayin scripts</a><br><a href="Lontara_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Lontara alphabet">Lontara alphabet</a><br><a href="Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a><br><a href="Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese script</a><br><a href="Rencong_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rencong alphabet">Rencong alphabet</a><br><a href="Rejang_alphabet" title="Rejang alphabet">Rejang alphabet</a><br><a href="Sasak_script" title="Sasak script">Sasak script</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">ISO 15924</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><a href="ISO_15924" title="ISO 15924">ISO 15924</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">

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</style><span class="monospaced">Java</span> <span class="monospaced">(361)</span>, Javanese</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd"><a href="Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Unicode alias</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Javanese</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Unicode_range" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicode range">Unicode range</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UA980.pdf"><span class="monospaced">U+A980</span>–<span class="monospaced">U+A9DF</span></a></td></tr><tr></tr></tbody></table>

<th style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal;">Part of a series on

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<th style="font-size:100%;">Writing systems used in Indonesia

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<th style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #FFFFFF;"><a href="Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugida</a> (<a href="Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a>)

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<ul><li><a href="Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li>

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<li><a href="Incung_script" title="Incung script">Incung</a></li>

<li><a href="Lampung_script" title="Lampung script">Lampung</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a> (<a href="Satera_Jontal" class="mw-redirect" title="Satera Jontal">Satera Jontal</a>, <a href="Mbojo_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Mbojo script">Mbojo</a>, Lota Ende)</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a></li>

<li><a href="Sasak_script" title="Sasak script">Sasak</a></li>

<li><a href="Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a> (<a href="Old_Sundanese_script" title="Old Sundanese script">Old Sundanese</a>)</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Ulu_scripts" title="Ulu scripts">Ulu</a> (<a href="Komering_script" title="Komering script">Komering</a>, <a href="Lembak_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lembak script">Lembak</a>, <a href="Ogan_script" title="Ogan script">Ogan</a>,</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Rejang_alphabet" title="Rejang alphabet">Rejang</a>, <a href="Pasemah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasemah script">Pasemah</a>, <a href="Serawai_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Serawai script">Serawai</a>)</li></ul>

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<th style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #FFFFFF;"><a href="Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjad</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Buri_Wolio" title="Buri Wolio">Buri Wolio</a></li>

<li><a href="Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pegon</a></li>

<li>Serang</li></ul>

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<th style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #FFFFFF;"><a href="Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> (<a href="Van_Ophuijsen_Spelling_System" title="Van Ophuijsen Spelling System">Van Ophuijsen</a>, <a href="Republican_Spelling_System" title="Republican Spelling System">Suwandi</a>, <a href="Indonesian_orthography" title="Indonesian orthography">EYD</a>)</li></ul>

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<th style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #FFFFFF;">Others

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<ul><li><a href="Alifuru_script" title="Alifuru script">Alifuru</a></li>

<li><a href="Bonda_script" title="Bonda script">Bonda</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Lontara_Bilang-bilang" title="Lontara Bilang-bilang">Bilang-bilang</a></li>

<li><a href="Dunging_script" title="Dunging script">Dunging</a></li></ul>

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<th style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #FFFFFF;">Related

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<ul><li><a href="List_of_writing_systems_of_Indonesia" title="List of writing systems of Indonesia">List of writing systems of Indonesia</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Languages_of_Indonesia" title="Languages of Indonesia">Languages of Indonesia</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> </span><a href="Portal%3AAsia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3AIndonesia" title="Portal:Indonesia">Indonesia portal</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> </span><a href="Portal%3ALanguage" title="Portal:Language">Language portal</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> </span><a href="Portal%3AWriting" title="Portal:Writing">Writing portal</a></li></ul>

</div>

</th></tr></tbody></table>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic scripts</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above">

The <a href="Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a> and its descendants</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Northern Brahmic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left;">

<ul><li><a href="Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a>

<ul><li><a href="La%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8D%C4%81_scripts" title="Laṇḍā scripts">Landa</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li>

<li><a href="Khojki_script" title="Khojki script">Khojki</a></li>

<li><a href="Khudabadi_script" title="Khudabadi script">Khudabadi</a></li>

<li><a href="Multani_script" title="Multani script">Multani</a></li>

<li><a href="Mahajani" title="Mahajani">Mahajani</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Takri_script" title="Takri script">Takri</a>

<ul><li><a href="Dogri_script" title="Dogri script">Dogri</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kamarupi_script" title="Kamarupi script">Kamarupi</a></li>

<li><a href="Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddham</a>

<ul><li><a href="N%C4%81gar%C4%AB_script" title="Nāgarī script">Nagari</a>

<ul><li><a href="Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li>

<li><a href="Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaithi" title="Kaithi">Kaithi</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sylheti_Nagri" title="Sylheti Nagri">Sylheti Nagri</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gaudi_script" title="Gaudi script">Gaudi</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bengali%E2%80%93Assamese_script" title="Bengali–Assamese script">Bengali–Assamese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bengali_alphabet" title="Bengali alphabet">Bengali</a></li>

<li><a href="Assamese_alphabet" title="Assamese alphabet">Assamese</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tirhuta_script" title="Tirhuta script">Tirhuta</a></li>

<li><a href="Nepalese_scripts" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepalese scripts">Nepalese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bhujimol_script" title="Bhujimol script">Bhujimol</a></li>

<li><a href="Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a>

<ul><li><a href="Soyombo_script" title="Soyombo script">Soyombo</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pracalit_script" title="Pracalit script">Pracalit</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei</a></li>

<li><a href="Lepcha_script" title="Lepcha script">Lepcha</a>

<ul><li><a href="Limbu_script" title="Limbu script">Limbu</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Khema_script" title="Khema script">Khema</a></li>

<li><a href="Phagspa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Phagspa script">Phagspa</a>

<ul><li><a href="Zanabazar_square_script" title="Zanabazar square script">Zanabazar square</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Marchen_script" title="Marchen script">Marchen</a>

<ul><li>Marchung</li>

<li>Pungs-chen</li>

<li>Pungs-chung</li>

<li>Drusha</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tamyig" title="Tamyig">Tamyig</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kalinga_script" title="Kalinga script">Kalinga</a></li>

<li><a href="Bhaiksuki_script" title="Bhaiksuki script">Bhaiksuki</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tocharian_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Tocharian alphabet">Tocharian</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Southern Brahmic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align: left;">

<ul><li><a href="Bhattiprolu_script" title="Bhattiprolu script">Bhattiprolu</a></li>

<li><a href="Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li>

<li><a href="Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a>

<ul><li><a href="Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li>

<li><a href="Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a></li>

<li><a href="Dhives_Akuru" title="Dhives Akuru">Dhives Akuru</a></li>

<li><a href="Saurashtra_script" title="Saurashtra script">Saurashtra</a></li>

<li><a href="Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a>

<li>Proto-Tai script<sup>?</sup>

<ul><li><a href="Sukhothai_script" title="Sukhothai script">Sukhothai</a>

<li><a href="Fakkham_script" title="Fakkham script">Fakkham</a>

<ul><li><a href="Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Sundanese_script" title="Old Sundanese script">Old Sundanese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a></li>

<li><a href="Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a></li>

<li><a href="Ulu_scripts" title="Ulu scripts">Ulu scripts</a>

<ul><li><a href="Incung_script" title="Incung script">Incung</a></li>

<li><a href="Lampung_script" title="Lampung script">Lampung</a></li>

<li><a href="Lembak_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lembak script">Lembak</a></li>

<li><a href="Pasemah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasemah script">Pasemah</a></li>

<li><a href="Rejang_alphabet" title="Rejang alphabet">Rejang</a></li>

<li><a href="Serawai_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Serawai script">Serawai</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Baybayin" title="Baybayin">Baybayin</a>

<ul><li><a href="Buhid_script" title="Buhid script">Buhid</a></li>

<li><a href="Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a></li>

<li><a href="Tagbanwa_script" title="Tagbanwa script">Tagbanwa</a></li>

<li><a href="Kulitan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulitan alphabet">Kulitan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Burmese</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Pwo_alphabet" title="Western Pwo alphabet">Western Pwo Karen</a></li>

<li><a href="S'gaw_Karen_alphabet" title="S'gaw Karen alphabet">S'gaw Karen</a></li>

<li><a href="Tanchangya_script" title="Tanchangya script">Tanchangya</a></li>

<li><i>Lik-Tai scripts</i>

<li><a href="Khamti_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Khamti script">Khamti</a></li>

<li><a href="Mon_alphabet" title="Mon alphabet">Modern Mon</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a></li>

<li><a href="Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kadamba_script" title="Kadamba script">Kadamba</a>

<ul><li><a href="Telugu-Kannada_alphabet" title="Telugu-Kannada alphabet">Telugu-Kannada</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a>

<ul><li><a href="Goykanadi" title="Goykanadi">Goykanadi</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<p><b>Javanese script</b> (natively known as <i>Aksara Jawa</i>, <i>Hanacaraka</i>, <i>Carakan</i>, and <i>Dentawyanjana</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is one of <a href="Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>'s traditional scripts developed on the island of <a href="Java" title="Java">Java</a>. The script is primarily used to write the <a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese language</a> and has also been used to write several other regional languages such as <a href="Sundanese_language" title="Sundanese language">Sundanese</a> and <a href="Madurese_language" title="Madurese language">Madurese</a>, the regional <a href="Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> <a href="Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a>, as well as the historical languages <a href="Kawi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawi language">Kawi</a> and <a href="Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>. It heavily influenced the <a href="Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese script</a> from which the <a href="Sasak_script" title="Sasak script">writing system</a> for <a href="Sasak_language" title="Sasak language">Sasak</a> developed. Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary texts from at least the mid-16th century <a href="Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a> until the mid-20th century CE, before it was gradually supplanted by the Latin alphabet. Today, the script is taught in the <a href="Special_Region_of_Yogyakarta" title="Special Region of Yogyakarta">Yogyakarta Special Region</a> as well as the provinces of <a href="Central_Java_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Java Province">Central Java</a> and <a href="East_Java" title="East Java">East Java</a> as part of the local curriculum, but with very limited function in everyday use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996161_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996161-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20081_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20081-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Javanese script is an <a href="Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a> writing system which consists of 20 to 33 basic letters, depending on the language being written. Like other <a href="Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic scripts</a>, each letter (called an <i>aksara</i>) represents a syllable with the <a href="Inherent_vowel" title="Inherent vowel">inherent vowel</a> /a/ or /ɔ/ which can be changed with the placement of <a href="Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a> around the letter. Each letter has a conjunct form called <i>pasangan</i>, which nullifies the inherent vowel of the previous letter. Traditionally, the script is written without spaces between words (<i><a href="Scriptio_continua" title="Scriptio continua">scriptio continua</a></i>) but is interspersed with a group of decorative <a href="Punctuation" title="Punctuation">punctuation</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>Javanese script's evolutionary history can be traced fairly well because significant amounts of inscriptional evidence left behind allowed for <a href="Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphical</a> studies to be carried out. The oldest root of Javanese script is the <a href="Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a> script which evolved into the <a href="Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava script</a> in Southern and Southeast Asia between the 6th and 8th centuries. The Pallava script, in turn, evolved into Kawi script, which was actively used throughout Indonesia's Hindu-Buddhist period between the 8th and 15th centuries. In various parts of Indonesia, Kawi script would then evolve into Indonesia's various traditional scripts, one of them being Javanese script.<sup id="cite_ref-holle_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holle-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern Javanese script seen today evolved from Kawi script between the 14th and 15th centuries, a period in which Java began to receive significant Islamic influence.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lang_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lang-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996161–162_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996161–162-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>From the 15th until the mid-20th centuries, Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary texts spanning a wide range of themes. Javanese script was used throughout the island at a time when there was no easy means of communication between remote areas and no impulse towards standardization. As a result, there is a huge variety of historical and local styles of Javanese writing throughout the ages. The great differences between regional styles make the "Javanese script" appear like a family of scripts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996162_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996162-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Javanese writing traditions were especially cultivated in the <a href="Kraton_(Indonesia)" title="Kraton (Indonesia)">Kraton</a> environment in Javanese cultural centers, such as <a href="Yogyakarta" title="Yogyakarta">Yogyakarta</a> and <a href="Surakarta" title="Surakarta">Surakarta</a>. However, Javanese texts are known to be made and used by various layers of society with varying usage intensities between regions. In <a href="West_Java" title="West Java">West Java</a>, for example, the script was mainly used by the Sundanese nobility (<i>ménak</i>) due to the political influence of the <a href="Mataram_kingdom" title="Mataram kingdom">Mataram kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoriyama1996166_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoriyama1996166-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, most Sundanese people within the same time period more commonly used the <a href="Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pegon script</a> which was adapted from the <a href="Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoriyama1996167_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoriyama1996167-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Javanese writing tradition also relied on periodic copying due to the deterioration of writing materials in the tropical Javanese climate; as a result, many physical manuscripts that are available now are 18th or 19th century copies, though their contents can usually be traced to far older prototypes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996161–162_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996161–162-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media">Media</h2></div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:254px;max-width:254px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i>Serat Yusuf</i> in <a href="Palm_leaf_manuscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Palm leaf manuscript">palm leaf</a> (<i>lontar</i>) form, Tropenmuseum collection</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i>Serat Yusuf</i> in paper codex form, <a href="Museum_Sonobudoyo" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum Sonobudoyo">Museum Sonobudoyo</a> collection</div></div></div></div></div>

<p>Javanese script has been written with numerous media that have shifted over time. Kawi script, which is ancestral to Javanese script, is often found on stone inscriptions and copper plates. Everyday writing in Kawi was done in <a href="Palm_leaf_manuscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Palm leaf manuscript">palm leaf form</a> (ocally known as <i>lontar</i>), which are processed leaves of the tal palm (<i><a href="Borassus_flabellifer" title="Borassus flabellifer">Borassus flabellifer</a></i>). Each <i>lontar</i> leaf has the shape of a slim rectangle 2.8 to 4 cm in width and varies in length between 20 and 80 cm. Each leaf can only accommodate around 4 lines of writing, which are incised horizontally with a small knife and then blackened with soot to increase readability. This media has a long history of attested use all over South and Southeast Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the 13th century, <a href="Paper" title="Paper">paper</a> began to be used in the <a href="Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a>. As Java began to receive significant Islamic influence in the 15th century, coinciding with the period in which Kawi script began to transition into the modern Javanese script, paper became widespread in Java while the use of <i>lontar</i> only persisted in a few regions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996165–167_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996165–167-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two kinds of paper that are commonly used in Javanese manuscript: locally produced paper called <i>daluang</i>, and imported paper. <i>Daluang</i> (also spelled <i>dluwang</i>) is a paper made from the beaten bark of the <i>saéh</i> tree (<i><a href="Paper_mulberry" title="Paper mulberry">Broussonetia papyrifera</a></i>). Visually, <i>daluang</i> can be easily differentiated from regular paper by its distinctive brown tint and fibrous appearance. A well made <i>daluang</i> has a smooth surface and is quite durable against manuscript damage commonly associated with tropical climates, especially insect damage. Meanwhile, a coarse <i>daluang</i> has a bumpy surface and tends to break easily. <i>Daluang</i> is commonly used in manuscripts produced by Javanese <a href="Kraton_(Indonesia)" title="Kraton (Indonesia)"><i>kraton</i></a> (palaces) and <i><a href="Pesantren" title="Pesantren">pesantren</a></i> (Islamic boarding schools) between the 16th and 17th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-tey_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tey-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Most imported paper in Indonesian manuscripts came from Europe. In the beginning, only a few scribes were able to use European paper due to its high price—paper made using European methods at the time could only be imported in limited numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In colonial administration, the use of European paper had to be supplemented with Javanese <i>daluang</i> and imported Chinese paper until at least the 19th century. As the paper supply increased due to growing imports from Europe, scribes in palaces and urban settlements gradually opted to use European paper as the primary medium for writing, while <i>daluang</i> paper was increasingly associated with <i>pesantren</i> and rural manuscripts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996165–167_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996165–167-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alongside the increase of European paper supply, attempts to create Javanese printing type began, spearheaded by several European figures. With the establishment of printing technology in 1825, materials in Javanese script could be mass-produced and became increasingly common in various aspects of pre-independence Javanese life, from letters, books, and newspapers, to magazines, and even advertisements and paper currency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolen2000154–158_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolen2000154–158-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage">Usage</h2></div>

<p>From the 15th century until the mid-20th century, Javanese script was used by all layers of Javanese society for writing day-to-day and literary texts with a wide range of theme and content. Due to the significant influence of oral tradition, reading in pre-independence Javanese society was usually a performance; Javanese literature texts are almost always composed in metrical verses that are designed to be recited, thus Javanese texts are not only judged by their content and language, but also by the merit of their melody and rhythm during recitation sessions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996167–169_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996167–169-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Javanese poets are not expected to create new stories and characters; instead the role of the poet is to rewrite and recompose existing stories into forms that cater to local taste and prevailing trends. As a result, Javanese literary works such as the <i><a href="Panji_tales" title="Panji tales">Panji tales</a></i> do not have a single authoritative version referenced by all others; instead, the <i>Cerita Panji</i> is a loose collection of numerous tales with various versions bound together by the common thread of the Panji character.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996172_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996172-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Literature genres with the longest attested history are Sanskrit epics such as the <i><a href="Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></i> and the <i><a href="Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i>, which have been recomposed since the Kawi period and introduced hundreds of familiar characters in Javanese <a href="Wayang" title="Wayang">wayang</a> stories today, including <a href="Arjuna" title="Arjuna">Arjuna</a>, <a href="Shikhandi" title="Shikhandi">Srikandi</a>, <a href="Ghatotkacha" title="Ghatotkacha">Ghatotkacha</a> and many others. Since the introduction of Islam, characters of Middle-Eastern provenance such as <a href="Hikayat_Amir_Hamzah" title="Hikayat Amir Hamzah">Amir Hamzah</a> and the <a href="Joseph_in_Islam" title="Joseph in Islam">Prophet Joseph</a> have also been frequent subjects of writing. There are also local characters, usually set in Java's semi-legendary past, such as <a href="Panji_tales" title="Panji tales">Prince Panji</a>, <a href="Damar_Wulan" class="mw-redirect" title="Damar Wulan">Damar Wulan</a>, and <a href="Calon_Arang" title="Calon Arang">Calon Arang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996172–175_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996172–175-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>When studies of Javanese language and literature began to attract European attention in the 19th century, an initiative to create a Javanese <a href="Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> began to take place in order to mass-produce and quickly disseminate Javanese literary materials. One of the earliest attempts to create a movable Javanese type was by Paul van Vlissingen. His typeface was first put in use in the <i>Bataviasche Courant</i> newspaper's October 1825 issue.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolen2000137_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolen2000137-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While lauded as a considerable technical achievement, many at the time felt that Vlissingen's design was a coarse copy of the fine Javanese hand used in literary texts, and so this early attempt was further developed by numerous other people to varying degrees of success as the study of Javanese developed over the years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolen2000136–140_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolen2000136–140-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1838, Taco Roorda completed his typeface, known as <a href="Tuladha_Jejeg" title="Tuladha Jejeg">Tuladha Jejeg</a>, based on the hand of <a href="Surakarta" title="Surakarta">Surakartan</a> scribes<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with some European typographical elements mixed in. Roorda's font garnered positive feedback and soon became the main choice to print any Javanese text. From then, reading materials in printed Javanese using Roorda's typeface became widespread among the Javanese populace and were widely used in materials other than literature. The establishment of print technology gave rise to a printing industry which, for the next century, produced various materials in printed Javanese, from administrative papers and school books, to mass media such as the Kajawèn magazine which was entirely printed in Javanese in all of its articles and columns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolen2000154–158_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolen2000154–158-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-astuti_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-astuti-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Javanese script was part of the multilingual legal text on the <a href="Netherlands_Indies_gulden" class="mw-redirect" title="Netherlands Indies gulden">Netherlands Indies gulden</a> banknotes circulated by the <a href="Bank_of_Java" title="Bank of Java">Bank of Java</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<li class="gallerycaption">Some examples of use</li>

<div class="gallerytext"> Opening pages of <i>Serat Jatipustaka</i> copied in 1830, Denver Museum collection</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"> Opening page of <i><a href="Babad_Tanah_Jawi" title="Babad Tanah Jawi">Babad Tanah Jawi</a></i> copied in 1862, Library of Congress collection</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"> A Javanese type sample from the <a href="Lettergieterij_Amsterdam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lettergieterij Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> type foundry, 1910</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Cover of <i>Kajawèn</i> magazine, issue 65, 16 August 1933 </div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><i>Serat kekancingan</i>, a document issued by the <a href="Kraton_Yogyakarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Kraton Yogyakarta">Kraton of Yogyakarta</a> in 1935, Dewantara Kirti Griya Museum collection</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><i>Serat Babad Tuban</i> published by <a href="Tan_Khoen_Swie" title="Tan Khoen Swie">Tan Khoen Swie</a> in 1936</div>

</li>

</ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3></div>

<p> As literacy rates and the demand for reading materials increased at the beginning of the 20th century, Javanese publishers paradoxically began to decrease the amount of Javanese script publication due to a practical and economic consideration: printing any text in Javanese script at the time required twice the amount of paper compared to the same text rendered in <a href="Javanese_orthography" title="Javanese orthography">the Latin alphabet</a>, making Javanese texts more expensive and time-consuming to produce. In order to lower production costs and keep book prices affordable to the general populace, many publishers gradually prioritized publications in the Latin alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobson201125_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobson201125-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rinkes_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rinkes-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Javanese population at the time maintained the use of Javanese script in various aspects of everyday life. It was, for example, considered more polite to write a letter using Javanese script, especially one addressed toward an elder or superior. Many publishers, including Balai Pustaka, continued to print books, newspapers, and magazines in Javanese script due to sufficient, albeit declining, demand. The use of Javanese script only started to drop significantly during the <a href="Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies</a> beginning in 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some writers attribute this sudden decline to prohibitions issued by the Japanese government banning the use of native script in the public sphere, though no documentary evidence of such a ban has yet been found. Nevertheless, the use of Javanese script did decline significantly during the Japanese occupation and it never recovered its previous widespread use in post-independence Indonesia.

</p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_use">Contemporary use</h3></div>

<div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">Comparison of Javanese script styles for government institution nameplates.</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Tuladha_Jejeg" title="Tuladha Jejeg">Surakarta-style</a>: Javanese script is placed above Latin letters (Perwali Solo No. 3/2008).</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Yogyakarta-style: Latin letters are placed above Javanese script (Pergub DIY No.70/2009)</div></div></div></div></div>

<p>In contemporary usage, Javanese script is still taught as part of the local curriculum in <a href="Special_Region_of_Yogyakarta" title="Special Region of Yogyakarta">Yogyakarta</a>, <a href="Central_Java_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Java Province">Central Java</a>, and the <a href="East_Java_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="East Java Province">East Java Province</a>. Several local newspapers and magazines have columns written in Javanese script, and the script can frequently be seen on public signage. However, many contemporary attempts to revive Javanese script are symbolic rather than functional; there are no longer, for example, periodicals like the <i>Kajawèn</i> magazine that publish significant content in Javanese script. Most Javanese people today know the existence of the script and recognize a few letters, but it is rare to find someone who can read and write it meaningfully.<sup id="cite_ref-wahab_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wahab-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, as recently as 2019, it is not uncommon to see Javanese script signage in public places with numerous misspellings and basic mistakes.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several hurdles in revitalizing the use of Javanese script includes information technology equipment that does not support correct rendering of Javanese script, lack of governing bodies with sufficient competence to consult on its usage, and lack of typographical explorations that may intrigue contemporary viewers. Nevertheless, attempts to revive the script are still being conducted by several communities and public figures who encourage the use of Javanese script in the public sphere, especially with digital devices.<sup id="cite_ref-radar_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radar-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Letters">Letters</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aksara">Aksara</h3></div>

<p><i>Aksara</i> are base letters that represent a single syllable. Javanese script has approximately 45 base <i>aksara</i> (letters), but not all of them are equally used. Over time, some <i>aksara</i> have fallen out of use, while others are only employed in specific contexts. Therefore, the <i>aksara</i> in Javanese script are classified into several types based on their function and usage.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wyanjana"><i>Wyanjana</i></h4></div>

<p><i>Aksara wyanjana</i> (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ) are consonants with an inherent vowel sound of /a/ or /ɔ/. As a descendant of the Brahmi script, Javanese script originally had 33 <i>wyanjana</i> characters to write the 33 consonant sounds used in Sanskrit and Kawi. Their forms can be seen as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20081–2_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20081–2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoerwadarminta19309–12_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoerwadarminta19309–12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption><i>Aksara wyanjana</i>

</caption>

</td>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Unvoiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Unvoiced consonant">Unvoiced</a>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">Voiced</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowel</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Sibilant" title="Sibilant">Sibilant</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Unaspirated</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">Aspirated</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Unaspirated</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">Aspirated</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row"><a href="Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a>

</th>

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</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<th>

</th>

<th>

</th>

</td></tr>

<th scope="row"><a href="Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a>

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<th>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row"><a href="Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a>

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<th>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row"><a href="Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<th>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row"><a href="Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a>

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<li id="cite_note-ha-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ha_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">may represent /ha/ or /a/ in Kawi</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ña-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ña_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">is romanized as <i>n</i> in the consonant clusters <i>nc</i> <span title="Javanese-language text"><span lang="jv">ꦚ꧀ꦕ</span></span> and <i>nj</i> <span title="Javanese-language text"><span lang="jv">ꦚ꧀ꦗ</span></span><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aksara_nglegéna">Aksara nglegéna</h3></div>

<p>Modern Javanese only uses 20 consonant sounds, represented by 20 of the original 33 <i>aksara wyanjana</i>, which are then referred to as <span title="Javanese-language text"><span lang="jv">ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦔ꧀ꦭꦼꦒꦺꦤ</span></span>, <span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn">aksara nglegéna</i></span>. They are commonly arranged in the <i>hanacaraka</i> sequence, a <a href="Pangram" title="Pangram">pangram</a> whose name is derived from its first five letters, similar to the word "alphabet" which comes from the first two letters of the <a href="Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>, <i>alpha</i> and <i>beta</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobson201113–14_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobson201113–14-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This sequence has been used at least the 15th century, when the island of Java started to receive significant Islamic influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20085–6_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20085–6-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are numerous interpretations on the supposed philosophical and esoteric qualities of the <i>hanacaraka</i> sequence,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochkyatmo199635–41_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochkyatmo199635–41-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it is often linked to the myth of <a href="Aji_Saka" title="Aji Saka">Aji Saka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochkyatmo19968–11_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochkyatmo19968–11-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERochkyatmo199651–58_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochkyatmo199651–58-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption><i>Hana caraka (modern sequence)</i>

</caption>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>: <span lang="jv"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">ꦲꦤꦕꦫꦏ</span></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn">hana caraka</i></span>, <small><a href="Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'There were (two) emissaries.'

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>: <span lang="jv"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">ꦢꦠꦱꦮꦭ</span></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn">data sawala</i></span>, <small><a href="Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'They began to fight.'

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>: <span lang="jv"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">ꦥꦝꦗꦪꦚ</span></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn">padha jayanya</i></span>, <small><a href="Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'Their valor was equal'

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>: <span lang="jv"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">ꦩꦒꦧꦛꦔ</span></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn">maga bathanga</i></span>, <small><a href="Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'They both fell dead.'

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aksara_murda">Aksara murda</h3></div>

<p>Some of the remaining characters were repurposed as <span title="Javanese-language text"><span lang="jv">ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦩꦸꦂꦢ</span></span>, <span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn">aksara murda</i></span>. <i>Aksara murda</i> are used to write the names of both respected individuals and legendary figures (for example <a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>: <span lang="jv">ꦨꦶꦩ</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn"><a href="Bhima" title="Bhima">Bima</a></i></span>) and real individuals. The use of <i>murda</i> differs from the use of capital letters in Latin script, in that<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200211–13_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200211–13-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> not every letter has a corresponding murda and if there is no <i>murda</i> for the first syllable of a name, a murda form can be used for whichever succeeding syllable <i>does</i> one. A name of great respect can be written entirely in <i>murda</i>. In traditional writing, the application of <i>murda</i> was essentially optional and not consistent. So, a name like <i>Gani</i> could be written as ꦒꦤꦶ (without <i>murda</i>), ꦓꦤꦶ (with <i>murda</i> at the beginning), or ꦓꦟꦶ (entirely in <i>murda</i>).

The remaining characters that are not included in <i>nglegena</i> or <i>murda</i> are <i>mahaprana</i> characters. <i>Mahaprana</i> characters have no function in modern Javanese writing and are only used in writing Sanskrit-Kawi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20081–2_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20081–2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption><i>Aksara murda</i>

</caption>

<th>Aksara murda

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<li id="cite_note-ragung-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ragung_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">not as widely known as other murda letters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20081–2_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20081–2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additional_letters_in_loan_words">Additional letters in loan words</h3></div>

<p>The Javanese script includes additional letters (<a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>: <span lang="jv"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦫꦺꦏꦤ꧀</span></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn">aksara rékan</i></span> used to write foreign sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200216–17_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200216–17-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially developed to transcribe loanwords from <a href="Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, they were later adapted for loanwords from <a href="Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, and in contemporary use, they are also used to write words from <a href="Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a> and <a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a>. Most <i>rékan</i> characters are formed by adding the <i>cecak telu</i> diacritic to the character whose sound is considered closest to the foreign sound. For example, the <i>rékan</i> character fa (ꦥ꦳) is formed by adding the <i>cecak telu</i> to the <i>wyanjana</i> character pa (ꦥ). The combination of <i>wyanjana</i> and the foreign sound equivalent for each <i>rékan</i> may vary among writers due to the lack of a unified standard. According to Padmasusastra<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Dwijasewaya,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are five <i>rékan</i> characters: <i>kha</i>, <i>dza</i>, <i>fa</i>, <i>za</i>, and <i>gha</i>. However, according to Hollander, there are nine.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption><i>Aksara rékan</i>

</caption>

<th>Javanese

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<th>Arabic

</th>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<li id="cite_note-kasak-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kasak_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>ka Sasak</i> was originally used only in the writing of the <a href="Sasak_language" title="Sasak language">Sasak language</a></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diacritics">Diacritics</h3></div>

<p>Diacritics (<i>sandhangan</i> ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦔꦤ꧀) are marks attached to characters to modify the inherent vowel of the respective character. Similar to the characters themselves, Javanese diacritics can also be divided into several groups depending on their function and usage.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3></div>

<p><i>Aksara swara</i> (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ) are characters used to write independent vowels. Javanese script has 14 vowel characters inherited from the Sanskrit writing tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoerwadarminta19309–12_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoerwadarminta19309–12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern Javanese no longer uses the entire set of <i>swara</i>, so now only the short vowel characters are generally taught. In modern writing, <i>aksara swara</i> is used to replace the <i>aksara wyanjana</i> ha ꦲ (whose pronunciation can be ambiguous as it serves a dual function as the phoneme /ha/ and /a/) in foreign names or terms whose pronunciation needs clarification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200213–15_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200213–15-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><i>Sandhangan swara</i> (ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ) are diacritics used to change a consonant's inherent vowel /a/ to other vowels, as shown below:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200219–24_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200219–24-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<caption><i>Aksara swara</i> with their <i>sandhangan swara</i> and examples with <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">ꦲ and ꦏ</span>⟩</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200219–24_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200219–24-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</caption>

<th colspan="6">Short

</th>

<th colspan="6">Long

</th></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">taling</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦺ</span></span></div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">taling-tarung</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦺꦴ</span></span></div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box letters-left"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">pepet</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦼ</span></span></div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">tarung</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦴ</span></span></div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">wulu melik</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦷ</span></span></div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">suku mendut</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦹ</span></span></div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">dirga muré</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦻ</span></span></div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">dirga muré-tarung</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦻꦴ</span></span></div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">pepet-tarung</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦼꦴ</span></span></div>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Just like <i>aksara swara</i>, only short vowel diacritics are generally taught and used in contemporary Javanese, while long vowel diacritics are used in writing Sanskrit and Kawi.

</p><p><i>Pa cerek</i> ꦉ, <i>pa cerek dirgha</i> ꦉꦴ, <i>nga lelet</i> ꦊ, and <i>nga lelet raswadi</i> ꦋ are <a href="Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic consonants</a> that are considered vowels in Sanskrit-Kawi.<sup id="cite_ref-woodard_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woodard-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoerwadarminta193011_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoerwadarminta193011-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When used in languages other than Sanskrit, the pronunciation of these four characters often varies. In modern Javanese, only <i>pa cerek</i> is pronounced /rə/ and <i>nga lelet</i> is pronounced /lə/. In modern teaching, these characters are often separated from <i>aksara swara</i> and known as <i>aksara gantèn</i> (replacement characters). They are used to replace every combination of ra + pepet (ꦫꦼ → ꦉ) and la + pepet (ꦭꦼ → ꦊ).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200220_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200220-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. <i>Pa cerek dirgha</i> and <i>nga lelet raswadi</i> are not used in modern Javanese.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Panyigeging_wanda"><i>Panyigeging wanda</i></h4></div>

<p>Diacritics (<a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>: <span lang="jv">ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦥꦚꦶꦒꦼꦒꦶꦁꦮꦤ꧀ꦢ</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn">sandhangan panyigeging vanda</i></span>) are used to close a syllable with a consonant.

</p>

<caption>Panyigeging wanda

</caption>

<th class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">panyangga</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦀ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text"><a href="Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal</a>

</th>

<th class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">cecek</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦁ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text">-ng</div>

</th>

<th class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">layar</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦂ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text">-r</div>

</th>

<th class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">wignyan</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦃ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text">-h</div>

</th>

<th class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">pangkon</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧀</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text"><sup id="cite_ref-virama_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-virama-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div>

</th></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<li id="cite_note-nasal-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nasal_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">usually used in transcription of Balinese lontars for writing the sacred syllable <i><a href="Om" title="Om">ong</a></i> <span title="Balinese-language text"><span lang="ban">ꦎꦀ</span></span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-virama-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-virama_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">used in final syllables, but not in the middle of a word.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semivowels_and_their_diacritics">Semivowels and their diacritics</h3></div>

<p>Consonant clusters containing a <a href="Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowel</a> are written by adding a diacritic (<a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>: <span lang="jv"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ</span></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn">sandhangan wyanjana</i></span>) to the base syllable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200229–32_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200229–32-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption><i>Sandhangan wyanjana</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200229–32_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200229–32-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</caption>

<th class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">keret</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦽ</span></div><div class="template-letter-text">-re-</div>

</th>

<th class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">pèngkal</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦾ</span></div><div class="template-letter-text">-y-</div>

</th>

<th class="template-letter-box letters-left"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">cakra</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꦿ</span></div><div class="template-letter-text">-r-</div>

</th>

<th class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">panjingan la</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧀ꦭ</span></div><div class="template-letter-text">-l-</div>

</th>

<th class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">gembung</div><div class="template-letter-char"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧀ꦮ</span></div><div class="template-letter-text">-w-</div>

</th></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pasangan"><i>Pasangan</i></h4></div>

<p>The inherent vowel of each base character can be nullified using the diacritic <i>pangkon</i>. However, the <i>pangkon</i> is generally not used in the middle of words or sentences. Instead, to write a closed syllable in the middle of a word or sentence, the <i>pasangan</i> form (ꦥꦱꦔꦤ꧀) is used. Unlike the <i>pangkon</i>, the <i>pasangan</i> not only nullifies the preceding consonant but also indicates the subsequent consonant. For example, the character <i>ma</i> (ꦩ) followed by the <i>pasangan</i> form of <i>pa</i> (꧀ꦥ) becomes <i>mpa</i> (ꦩ꧀ꦥ). The <i>pasangan</i> forms in this table are those used in modern Javanese writing. Some characters have different <i>pasangan</i> forms in Sanskrit-Kawi writing.

</p>

<caption><i>Pasangan</i>

</caption>

<th>ha/a

</th>

<th>na

</th>

<th>ca

</th>

<th>ra

</th>

<th>ka

</th>

<th>da

</th>

<th>ta

</th>

<th>sa

</th>

<th>wa

</th>

<th>la

</th>

<th>pa

</th>

<th>dha

</th>

<th>ja

</th>

<th>ya

</th>

<th>nya

</th>

<th>ma

</th>

<th>ga

</th>

<th>ba

</th>

<th>tha

</th>

<th>nga

</th></tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<li id="cite_note-nonph-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nonph_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">often used as part of pepadan, which does not have a phonetic function.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numbers">Numbers</h3></div>

<p>Javanese script has its own numerals (<a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>: <span lang="jv"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">ꦲꦁꦏ</span></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn">angka</i></span>) that behave similarly to <a href="Arabic_numeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic numeral">Arabic numerals</a>. Some of their forms closely resemble other Javanese characters. For instance, the numeral 1 <span class="nowrap">⟨꧑⟩</span> resembles the <i>wyanjana</i> character ga <span class="nowrap">⟨ꦒ⟩</span>, and the numeral 8 <span class="nowrap">⟨꧘⟩</span> resembles the <i>murda</i> character pa <span class="nowrap">⟨ꦦ⟩</span>. To avoid confusion, numerals that are used in the middle of sentences must be surrounded by <i>pada pangkat</i> <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">꧇ ꧇</span>⟩</span> or <i>pada lingsa</i> <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">꧈ ꧈</span>⟩</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20084_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20084-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200244–45_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarusuprapta200244–45-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <i>tanggal 17 Juni</i> ("the date 17 June") is written<br>

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</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:deeppink">꧇</span>꧑꧗<span class="tmp-color" style="color:deeppink">꧇</span>ꦗꦸꦤꦶ</span></span><br>or<br> <span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:120%;">ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀<span class="tmp-color" style="color:deeppink">꧈</span>꧑꧗<span class="tmp-color" style="color:deeppink">꧈</span>ꦗꦸꦤꦶ</span></span>.

</p><p>These enclosures can be omitted when the numeral's function is clear from context, such as page numbers in the corner of a page. The forms are as follows:

</p>

<caption><i>Angka</i>

</caption>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Punctuation">Punctuation</h4></div>

<p>Traditional Javanese text is written without spaces between words (<i><a href="Scriptio_continua" title="Scriptio continua">scriptio continua</a></i>) and uses a set of punctuation marks known as <i>pada</i> (ꦥꦢ). To separate sentences, Javanese script employs <i>pada lungsi</i> (꧉) when the last syllable is open (without a <i>pangkon</i>) but uses <i>pada lingsa</i> (꧈) when the last syllable is closed (using a <i>pangkon</i>). Conversely, to separate clauses, <i>pada lingsa</i> (꧈) is used if the last syllable is closed, while a space is used if the last syllable is open. This punctuation system differs from the use of periods and commas in Latin script and is often not well understood by contemporary Javanese script users.

</p><p>Additionally, Javanese script lacks equivalents for <a href="Question_mark" title="Question mark">question marks</a>, <a href="Exclamation_mark" title="Exclamation mark">exclamation marks</a>, <a href="Hyphen" title="Hyphen">hyphens</a>, mathematical symbols (including slashes), and <a href="Semicolon" title="Semicolon">semicolons</a>. Consequently, whether a sentence in Javanese script is interrogative (question) or imperative (command) can only be inferred from the context. The various forms of <i>pada</i> are as follows:

</p>

<caption>Common punctuation

</caption>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧈</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text">lingsa</div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧉</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text">lungsi</div>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧌...꧍</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text">pisélèh</div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧁...꧂</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text">rerenggan</div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧇</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text">pangkat</div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-char"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'"><span style="font-size:150%;">ꧏ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text">rangkap</div>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>In modern teaching, the most commonly used punctuation marks in Javanese script are <i>pada adeg-adeg</i>, <i>pada lingsa</i>, and <i>pada lungsi</i>, which function similarly to a paragraph mark (like a <a href="Pilcrow" title="Pilcrow">pilcrow</a>), a <a href="Comma" title="Comma">comma</a>, and a <a href="Full_stop" title="Full stop">full stop</a>, respectively. <i>Pada adeg-adeg</i> opens a paragraph, <i>pada lingsa</i> separates clauses or sentences and <i>pada lungsi</i> ends a sentence. Other punctuation marks include <i>pada adeg</i> and <i>pada pisèlèh</i>, which are used to enclose inserts in the text, similar to <a href="Parentheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Parentheses">parentheses</a> or <a href="Quotation_marks" class="mw-redirect" title="Quotation marks">quotation marks</a>. <i>Pada pangkat</i> functions similarly to a <a href="Colon_(punctuation)" title="Colon (punctuation)">colon</a>. <i>Pada rangkap</i> is sometimes used as a repetition marker, similar to the use of the number "2" in informal Indonesian (e.g. kata-kata ꦏꦠꦏꦠ → ꦏꦠꧏ = kata2).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20084–5_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20084–5-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Some punctuation marks, like <i>rerenggan</i>, have no direct Latin script equivalents and are often purely decorative. They are frequently used to frame titles or sections of text, with considerable variation among writers. In correspondence, certain punctuation marks indicate the sender’s social status. <i>Pada andhap</i> denotes low status, <i>pada madya</i> denotes middle status, <i>pada luhur</i> denotes high status, and <i>pada guru</i> is neutral, without social connotations. <i>Pada pancak</i> is used to end a letter. However, these distinctions are generalized. The actual forms and functions of these punctuation marks are highly variable, with specific regional and personal styles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20084–5_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20084–5-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In traditional manuscripts, some royal scribes used specific correction marks instead of crossing out errors. <i>Tirta tumétès</i> is found in Yogyakarta manuscripts, while <i>isèn-isèn</i> is found in Surakarta manuscripts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20085_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20085-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pepadan"><i>Pepadan</i></h4></div>

<p>Aside from regular punctuation, one of the distinctive features in Javanese script writing is <i>pepadan</i> (ꦥꦼꦥꦢꦤ꧀), a series of highly ornate verse marks.

</p><p>Behrend (1996) categorizes <i>pepadan</i> into two general groups: small <i>pada</i>, which are single punctuation marks, and large <i>pada</i>, which are often composed of several marks arranged in a sequence. Small <i>pada</i> are used to indicate stanza breaks, typically appearing every 32 to 48 syllables depending on the meter used. Large <i>pada</i> mark a change in <i><a href="Javanese_poetry" title="Javanese poetry">tembang</a></i>, or <i>canto</i>, and usually appear every 5 to 10 pages, depending on the structure of the text.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996188_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996188-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Javanese writing guides often identify three types of large pada <i>purwa pada</i> used at the beginning of the first <i>tembang</i>, <i>madya pada</i> used at <i>tembang</i> transitions, and <i>wasana pada</i> used at the end of the text.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20084–5_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20084–5-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these three marks are often merged and treated as one in many Javanese texts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996190_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996190-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption>Pepadan

</caption>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-char"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅</span></div><div class="template-letter-text">purwa pada</div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-char"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧅ ꦟ꧀ꦢꦿ ꧅</span></div><div class="template-letter-text">madya pada</div>

</td>

<td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-char"><span style="font-size:150%;">꧅ ꦆ ꧅</span></div><div class="template-letter-text">wasana pada</div>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><i>Pepadan</i> is a visually prominent element in Javanese manuscripts and may be rendered in color or even gilded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996189–190_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996189–190-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some luxurious manuscripts, the form of pepadan can even serve as a clue to the song being used; for instance, pepadan featuring wings or crow-like birds (dhandhang in Javanese) refers to the <i>dhandhanggula</i> tembang, while those featuring goldfish allude to the <i>maskumambang</i> ("gold floating in water") tembang. One of the key centers for producing manuscripts with exceptional pepadan designs was the <a href="Scriptorium" title="Scriptorium">scriptorium</a> of <a href="Pakualaman" title="Pakualaman">Pakualaman</a> in Yogyakarta.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996190_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996190-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default"><div class="main"><div><ul class="nochecker bordered-images whitebg gallery mw-gallery-traditional">

<div class="gallerytext">Pepadan from Serat, minor pada <span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">꧅</span></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Pepadan from Babad Mataram, minor pada <span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">꧅</span></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Pepadan from Serat Jayalengkara, major pada <span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅</span></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Pepadan from serat selarasa, major pada <span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅</span></div>

</li>

</li>

</ul></div></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_text">Sample text</h2></div>

<p>Excerpt from the <i>Treatise on Cats</i> (<a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a>: <span lang="jv"><span class="script-javanese" style="font-family: ' Noto Sans Javanese'">ꦱꦼꦫꦠ꧀ꦏꦠꦸꦫꦁꦒꦤ꧀ꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ</span></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Javanese-language romanization"><i lang="jv-Latn"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:Serat_Katurangganing_Kucing" class="extiw external" title="jv:s:Serat Katurangganing Kucing">Serat Katuranggan Kucing</a></i></span>), printed in 1871 with modern Javanese language and spelling.<sup id="cite_ref-gb_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gb-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div><div style="display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap; gap: 1em"><div style="flex: 1 0 200px;"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Javanese">Javanese</h4></div><span title="Javanese-language text"><span lang="jv">꧅ꦭꦩꦸꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦫꦔꦶꦔꦸꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ꧈ ꦲꦮꦏ꧀ꦏꦺꦲꦶꦉꦁꦱꦢꦪ꧈ ꦭꦩ꧀ꦧꦸꦁꦏꦶꦮꦠꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦁꦥꦸꦠꦶꦃ꧈ ꦊꦏ꧀ꦱꦤꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦫꦥꦿꦪꦺꦴꦒ꧈ ꦲꦫꦤ꧀ꦮꦸꦭꦤ꧀ꦏꦿꦲꦶꦤꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦠꦶꦤꦼꦏꦤꦤ꧀ꦱꦱꦼꦢꦾꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦥꦸꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ꦧꦸꦟ꧀ꦝꦼꦭ꧀ꦭꦁꦏꦸꦁꦲꦸꦠꦩ꧈

꧅ꦲꦗꦱꦶꦫꦔꦶꦔꦸꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ꧈ ꦭꦸꦫꦶꦏ꧀ꦲꦶꦉꦁꦧꦸꦤ꧀ꦠꦸꦠ꧀ꦥꦚ꧀ꦗꦁ꧈ ꦥꦸꦤꦶꦏꦲꦮꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦭꦩꦠ꧀ꦠꦺ꧈ ꦱꦼꦏꦼꦭꦤ꧀ꦱꦿꦶꦁꦠꦸꦏꦂꦫꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦲꦫꦤ꧀ꦝꦣꦁꦱꦸꦁꦏꦮ꧈ ꦥꦤ꧀ꦲꦢꦺꦴꦃꦫꦶꦗꦼꦏꦶꦤꦶꦥꦸꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ꦧꦸꦟ꧀ꦝꦼꦭ꧀ꦤꦺꦴꦫꦔꦥꦲ꧈</span></span></div><div style="flex: 1 0 200px;"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Romanized">Romanized</h4></div>Lamun sira ngingu kucing, awaké ireng sadaya, lambung kiwa tèmbong putih, leksan nira prayoga, aran wulan krahinan, tinekanan sasedyan nira ipun, yèn buṇḍel langkung utama.

<p>Aja sira ngingu kucing, lurik ireng buntut panjang, punika awon lamaté, sekelan sring tukaran, aran ḍaḍang sungkawa, pan adoh rijeki nipun, yèn buṇḍel nora ngapa.

</p>

</div><div style="flex: 1 0 200px;"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transliteration">Transliteration</h4></div>A completely black cat with a white patch on its left belly is called <i>Harvest Moon</i>. It is a cat that brings good fortune and the fulfilment of all wishes. It is better if it is bobtailed.

A dark striped cat with a long tail should not be kept as a pet. Such a cat is called <i>Mourning Crow</i>. You would encounter frequent arguments and limited wealth. But if it is bobtailed, then there is no problem.</div></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Madurese">Madurese</h2></div>

<p>In the Madurese, the Javanese script is referred to as <i>carakan Madhurâ</i> or c<i>arakan Jhâbân</i> (script from Javanese). While in Javanese, each consonant includes an inherent /a/ or /ɔ/, in Madurese, the inherent vowel is /a/ or /ɤ/.<sup id="cite_ref-sekkaranomi_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sekkaranomi-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiliaan189789_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiliaan189789-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another difference is the use of the <i>wignyan</i>, which adds aspiration to a syllable in Javanese but indicates a glottal stop in Madurese.

</p><p>Only five <i>aksara rèka'an</i> (additional letters) are taught in Madurese schools.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sample_text_2">Sample text</h3></div>

<p>Below is the use of <i>carakan</i> in <i>Bab oreng megha djhoeko e'tana Djhaba sareng Madhoera</i> (Chapter on people catching fish in the land of Java and Madura), accompanied by the modern Madurese spelling.

</p>

<div><div style="display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap; gap: 1em"><div style="flex: 1 0 200px;"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Madurese_2">Madurese</h4></div><span title="Madurese-language text"><span lang="mad">ꦥꦫꦲꦺꦴꦥꦩꦺꦒꦃꦲꦤ꧀ꦤꦺꦥꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦗꦸꦏꦺꦴꦃꦏꦺꦔꦺꦁꦧꦶꦢꦃꦲꦒꦶꦢꦢ꧀ꦢꦶꦝꦸꦧꦂꦤ꧇

<p>꧑꧇ ꦥꦫꦲꦺꦴ꧈ ꦱꦺꦲꦺꦧꦝꦶꦝꦫꦶꦏꦗꦸꦧꦸꦁꦏꦺꦴꦭ꧀ꦱꦺꦲꦺꦭꦺꦴꦧꦔꦺ꧉ ꦧꦝꦱꦺꦲꦺꦱꦺ ꦩ꧀ꦧꦸꦏꦗꦸꦥꦺꦴꦭꦺꦲꦺꦥꦺꦁꦒꦶꦂ꧈ ꦧꦝꦱꦺꦧꦸꦤ꧀ꦠꦼꦤ꧀꧈

</p>

꧒꧇ ꦥꦫꦲꦺꦴꦱꦺꦲꦺꦧꦝꦶꦝꦫꦶꦥꦥꦤ꧀ꦫꦧ꧀ꦠꦼꦤ꧀ꦧꦤ꧀ꦱꦢꦗ꧉</span></span></div><div style="flex: 1 0 200px;"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Romanized_2">Romanized</h4></div>Parao pamèghâ'ânnèpon jhuko' kèngèng bhidhâ'aghi dhâddhi ḍu bârna:

<ol><li>Parao, sè èbhâḍhi ḍâri kaju bungkol sè èlobângè. Bâḍâ sè èsèmbu kaju polè è pèngghir, bâḍâ sè bhunten<i></i></li>

<li>Parao sè èbhâḍhi papan rabten bân sadhâjâ.</li></ol>

</div><div style="flex: 1 0 200px;"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transliteration_2">Transliteration</h4></div>Fishing boats can be classified into two types:

<ol><li>Boats made from hollowed-out logs. Some have additional planks attached to the sides, while others do not.</li>

<li>Boats made entirely from planks.</li></ol>

</div></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sundanese">Sundanese</h2></div>

<p>In Sundanese, the Javanese script is referred to as <i>aksara Sunda cacarakan</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>aksara Sunda Basisir Kalér</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosyadi199751_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosyadi199751-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>aksara Sunda Jawa</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or simply <i>cacarakan</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><i>Cacarakan</i> is nearly identical to Javanese <i>hanacaraka</i>, consisting of consonants (<a href="Sundanese_language" title="Sundanese language">Sundanese</a>: <i lang="su">nglagena</i><span class="lang-comment" style="font-style: normal; display: none; color: #33aa33; margin-left: 0.3em;">code: sun promoted to code: su </span>), <span title="Sundanese-language text"><i lang="su">gedé</i></span><span class="lang-comment" style="font-style: normal; display: none; color: #33aa33; margin-left: 0.3em;">code: sun promoted to code: su </span> (<i>murda</i>, honorific letters), and <span title="Sundanese-language text"><i lang="su">panambah</i></span><span class="lang-comment" style="font-style: normal; display: none; color: #33aa33; margin-left: 0.3em;">code: sun promoted to code: su </span> (vowels, swara), <span title="Sundanese-language text"><i lang="su">sandangan</i></span><span class="lang-comment" style="font-style: normal; display: none; color: #33aa33; margin-left: 0.3em;">code: sun promoted to code: su </span> (diacritics) and <span title="Sundanese-language text"><i lang="su">pada</i></span><span class="lang-comment" style="font-style: normal; display: none; color: #33aa33; margin-left: 0.3em;">code: sun promoted to code: su </span> (punctuation).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>There are minor differences between the Javanese and Sundanese alphabets. The Sundanese language does not have dental da and retroflex ta, so the <i>dha</i> letter is used to replace the <i>da</i> letter. The shape of the <i>nya</i> letter is derived from the <i>na</i> letter, with the <i>nya</i> pair positioned as a subscript.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

</caption>

<th>

</th>

<th>da

</th>

<th>nya

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Javanese

</th>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Sundanese

</th>

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sample_text_3">Sample text</h3></div>

<div><div style="display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap; gap: 1em"><div style="flex: 1 0 200px;"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sundanese_2">Sundanese</h4></div><span title="Sundanese-language text"><span lang="su">꧄ ꦠꦸꦮꦤ꧀ ꦮꦶꦤ꧀ꦠꦼꦂꦗꦸꦫꦸꦧꦱ꧈ ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦤꦤꦤꦸꦔꦁꦒꦶꦠ꧀꧈ ꦩꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦃꦏꦼꦤ꧀ꦏꦧꦱꦗꦮ꧈ ꦔ꦳ꦪꦼꦤꦝꦶꦱꦭꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦼꦆ꧈ ꦝꦶꦱꦸꦤ꧀ꦝꦏꦼꦤ꧀ꦱꦏꦭꦶ꧈ ꦏꦸꦏꦮꦸꦭꦔ꦳ꦸꦫꦁꦒꦫꦸꦠ꧀꧈ ꦔ꦳ꦫꦶꦔ꦳ꦤꦸꦝꦶꦥꦭꦂ꧈ ꦔ꦳ꦸꦫꦁꦱꦸꦤ꧀ꦝꦠꦩ꧀ꦧꦃꦫꦗꦶꦤ꧀꧈ ꦫꦺꦪꦕꦿꦶꦠꦧꦫꦶꦱ꧀ꦲ꦳ꦼꦤ꧀ꦠꦼꦁꦏꦭꦏꦸꦮꦤ꧀꧉</span></span><span class="lang-comment" style="font-style: normal; display: none; color: #33aa33; margin-left: 0.3em;">code: sun promoted to code: su </span></div><div style="flex: 1 0 200px;"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Romanized_3">Romanized</h4></div>Tuwan Winter jurubasa, Jenenganana nu nganggit, Mindahkeun ka basa Jawa, Ayeuna disalin deui, Disundakeun sakali, Ku kawula urang Garut, Ari anu dipalar, Urang Sunda tambah rajin, Réa crita baris eunteung kalakuan.

</div><div style="flex: 1 0 200px;"><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transliteration_3">Transliteration</h4></div>Tuwan Winter the linguist, He who wrote it, Who translated it into Javanese, Now it is copied again, Translated into Sundanese, By me, a person from Garut. The hope is, that Sundanese people become more diligent, With many stories as reflections of deeds.

</div></div><p style="clear:left;margin:1em 0 1em 6em;align-self:flex-end">—<i>Dongéng-dongéng Pieunteungeun</i> (Stories as Reflections), Moehamad Moesa<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_with_Balinese">Comparison with Balinese</h2></div>

<p>The closest relative of the Javanese script is the <a href="Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese script</a>. As a direct descendant of the <a href="Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi script</a>, Javanese and Balinese scripts still share many similarities in the basic structure of each letter. One striking difference between Javanese and Balinese scripts is the writing system; the Balinese writing system tends to be more conservative and retains many aspects of Kawi orthography that are no longer used in Javanese script. For example, the word "<i>desa</i>" in Javanese script is now written as ꦢꦺꦱ.

</p>

<caption>Some Javanese letters and their Balinese equivalents

</caption>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .script-bali{font-family:"Noto Sans Balinese","Tantular Bali","Noto Serif Balinese","Aksara Bali"}

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</style><span lang="ban" class="script-bali" style="line-height:2.1em; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᬳ</span></span></div>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unicode">Unicode</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Javanese_(Unicode_block)" title="Javanese (Unicode block)">Javanese (Unicode block)</a></div>

<p>Javanese script was added to the <a href="Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> Standard in October, 2009 with the release of version 5.2. The Unicode block for Javanese is U+A980–U+A9DF. There are 91 code points for Javanese script: 53 letters, 19 punctuation marks, 10 numbers, and 9 vowels:

</p>

<td colspan="17" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small"><b><a href="Javanese_(Unicode_block)" title="Javanese (Unicode block)">Javanese</a></b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}

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</style><sup class="citation nobold" id="ref_UA980_as_of_Unicode_version"><a href="#endnote_UA980_as_of_Unicode_version">[1]</a></sup><sup class="citation nobold" id="ref_UA980_grey"><a href="#endnote_UA980_grey">[2]</a></sup><br><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UA980.pdf">Official Unicode Consortium code chart</a> (PDF)

</td></tr>

<td style="width:20pt">F

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small;height:75px;">U+A98x

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small;height:75px;">U+A99x

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small;height:75px;">U+A9Ax

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small;height:75px;">U+A9Bx

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small;height:75px;">U+A9Cx

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small;height:75px;">U+A9Dx

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="17" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small;text-align:left"><b>Notes</b>

<dl><dd>1.<span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_UA980_as_of_Unicode_version"><b><a href="#ref_UA980_as_of_Unicode_version">^</a></b></span> As of Unicode version 16.0</dd>

<dd>2.<span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_UA980_grey"><b><a href="#ref_UA980_grey">^</a></b></span> Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points</dd></dl>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2></div>

<div class="gallerytext">A stone inscription from around 18th century in the Kyai Tumenggung Pusponegoro grave complex, <a href="Gresik" class="mw-redirect" title="Gresik">Gresik</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">A page from <i>Serat Jaya Lengkara Wulang</i> copied in 1803, British Library collection</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"> A page from <i>Serat Damar Wulan</i> copied in 1804, British Library collection</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Five Gulden/Rupiah <a href="Scrip" title="Scrip">scrip</a> issued by <a href="Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> in 1846, value spelled in Latin, <a href="Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pégon</a>, and Javanese script</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Bromartani newspaper, the first newspaper printed in Javanese language and script, circulating between 1855 and 1856</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Title page of a book commemorating the ascension of <a href="Wilhelmina_of_the_Netherlands" title="Wilhelmina of the Netherlands">Queen Wilhelmina</a>, printed in <a href="Semarang" title="Semarang">Semarang</a> in 1898 </div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">A page from <i>Serat Bratayudha</i> (an episode of <a href="Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>) copied in 1902, Widya Budaya collection</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Opening pages of <i>Serat Damar Wulan</i> copied around the 18th century, British Library collection</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">An advertisement for Droste's Cacao</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">An advertisement for <a href="Osram" title="Osram">Osram</a> light bulb</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">5 Gulden paper currency issued by the <a href="Bank_of_Java" title="Bank of Java">Bank of Java</a> in 1937, with multilingual forgery warnings, including one in Javanese language and script</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Pakubuwana_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Pakubuwana X">Pakubuwana X</a> inscription commemorating the construction of several gateways in <a href="Surakarta" title="Surakarta">Surakarta</a> in 1938</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">A patrol car used by the Public Health Service (<i>Dienst der Volksgezondheid</i>) <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1925</span></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">100 Gulden paper currency issued by the Bank of Java in 1946, the last Gulden series that contains Javanese script. Later reprinted in 1950</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">A street sign in Surakarta. The word <i>jendral</i> in the sign has been misspelled and should have used <i>taling</i> in accordance to how it is pronounced in Javanese, <i>jèndral</i></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Contemporary merchandise with design elements containing Javanese script</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">The <a href="Yogyakarta_Sultanate" title="Yogyakarta Sultanate">Yogyakarta Sultanate</a> coat of arms with the Hamengkubuwana <a href="Royal_monogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal monogram">royal monogram</a> in Javanese script</div>

</li>

</ul>

<ul><li><a href="Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese language</a></li>

<li><a href="Javanese_literature" title="Javanese literature">Javanese literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuladha_Jejeg" title="Tuladha Jejeg">Tuladha Jejeg</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">VOC established a paper mill in Java between 1665–1681. However, the mill was not able to fulfill paper demands of the island and so stable paper supply continued to rely in shipments from Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-tey_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tey-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Among 19th century European scholars, the style of the <a href="Surakarta" title="Surakarta">Surakartan</a> scribes is agreed as the most refined among the various regional Javanese hand. So much so that prominent Javanese scholars such as J.F.C. Gericke frequently suggested that the Surakartan style should be used as the ideal shape to which a proper Javanese type design could be based upon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolen2000149–154_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolen2000149–154-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-rinkes-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rinkes_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to D. A. Rinkes, the director of the government-owned <a href="Balai_Pustaka" title="Balai Pustaka">Balai Pustaka</a>, writing in 1920, "[using Roman type] considerably simplifies matters for European users, and for interested Natives presents no difficulty at all, seeing that the Javanese language... can be rendered no less clearly in roman type than in the Javanese script. In this way the costs are about one third of printing in Javanese characters, seeing that printing in that type, which furthermore is not readily available, is one and a half times to twice as expensive (and more time-consuming) than in roman type, also because it cannot be set on a setting-machine, and one page of Javanese type only contains about half the number of words on one page of the same text in roman script."</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFPoerwadarminta1939" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Poerwadarminta, W.J.S (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f4G5AAAAIAAJ"><i>Baoesastra Djawa</i></a> (in Javanese). Batavia: J.B. Wolters. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0834803496</bdi>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996161-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996161_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBehrend1996">Behrend 1996</a>, pp. 161.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverson20081-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverson20081_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEverson2008">Everson 2008</a>, pp. 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-holle-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-holle_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHolle1882" class="citation journal cs1">Holle, K F (1882). "Tabel van oud-en nieuw-Indische alphabetten". <i>Bijdrage tot de Palaeographie van Nederlandsch-Indie</i>. Batavia: W. Bruining.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996190-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996190_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996190_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBehrend1996">Behrend 1996</a>, pp. 190.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996189–190-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBehrend1996189–190_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBehrend1996">Behrend 1996</a>, pp. 189–190.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSaktimulya2016" class="citation book cs1">Saktimulya, Sri Ratna (2016). <i>Naskah-naskah Skriptorium Pakualaman</i>. Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-6024242282</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-gb-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gb_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="gb" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BfRhOG2SfNoC&pg=PP7"><i>Serat: katoerangganing koetjing saha ngalamat solah ing koetjing kang awon miwak kang sahe</i></a> (in Javanese). Semarang, Indonesia: GCT Van Dorp & Co. 1871. p. 7<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-sekkaranomi-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sekkaranomi_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHamzahSayunaniGaniDradjid2014" class="citation book cs1">Hamzah, Bambang Hartono; Sayunani, Isya; Gani, Abdul; Dradjid, H.M. (2014). Ghazali, A. Syukur; Poerno, Heru Asri (eds.). <i>Sekkar Anom I</i> (in Madura). Dinas Pendidikan Provinsi Jawa Timur. p. 148.</cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|first4=</code> missing <code class="cs1-code">|last4=</code> (help)</span>; <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|first6=</code> missing <code class="cs1-code">|last6=</code> (help)</span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSukardi2005" class="citation book cs1">Sukardi, A. (2005). <i>Kasustraan Madura Kembang Sataman</i> (in Madura) (2 ed.). Jember: Dinas Pendidikan Kabupaten Jember.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiliaan189789-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiliaan189789_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiliaan1897">Kiliaan 1897</a>, p. 89.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWedhawati2001" class="citation book cs1">Wedhawati (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/16353/"><i>Tata Bahasa Jawa Mutakhir</i></a>. Jakarta: Pusat Bahasa. pp. <span class="nowrap">39–</span>40. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9796851415</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230417083014/https://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/16353/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2010" class="citation book cs1">Davies, William D. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mflajowwD5oC&pg=PA53"><i>A Grammar of Madurese</i></a>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 53. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9783110224443</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRosyadi1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rosyadi (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/14862/1/Pelestarian%20dan%20usaha%20pengembangan%20aksara%20daerah%20sunda.pdf"><i>PELESTARIAN DAN USAHA PENGEMBANGAN AKSARA DAERAH SUNDA</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Indonesian) (1 ed.). Jakarta: Proyek Pengkajian dan Pembinaan Nilai-Nilai Budaya Pusat Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosyadi199751-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosyadi199751_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosyadi1997">Rosyadi 1997</a>, p. 51.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCoolsma1985" class="citation book cs1">Coolsma, Sierk (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tata-bahasa-sunda/mode/2up"><i>Tata Bahasa Sunda</i></a>. Translated by Widjajakusumah, Husein; Rusyana, Yus. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13986971">13986971</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEkadjati1999" class="citation book cs1">Ekadjati, Edi S. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.id/books?printsec=frontcover&vid=LCCN99503487&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>Direktori Edisi Naskah Nusantara</i></a>. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia dan Masyarakat Pernaskahan Nusantara. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9794613347</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:2-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHolle1862" class="citation book cs1">Holle, K F (1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AupPpeV6EZUC&dq=Soendasch+spel-+en+lees+boek,+met+Soendasche+letter&pg=PP18"><i>Soendasch spel- en lees boek, met Soendasche letter</i></a>. Batavia: Landsdrukkerij.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMoesa_(.R._Hadji.)1867" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Moesa (.R. Hadji.), Moehamad (1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230417194925/https://books.google.co.id/books?id=0hm2yOwsEgkC"><i>Dongeng-dongeng pingĕntĕngĕn</i></a> (in Sundanese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0hm2yOwsEgkC">the original</a> on 17 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFArps1999" class="citation journal cs1">Arps, B (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/15216">"How a Javanese Gentleman put his Library in Order"</a>. <i>Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde</i>. <b>155</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">416–</span>469. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134379-90003871">10.1163/22134379-90003871</a></span>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F15216">1887/15216</a></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBehrend1993" class="citation journal cs1">Behrend, T E (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41017542">"Manuscript Production in Nineteenth Century Java. Codicology and the Writing of Javanese Literary History"</a>. <i>Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde</i>. <b>149</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">407–</span>437. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134379-90003115">10.1163/22134379-90003115</a></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBehrend1996" class="citation book cs1">Behrend, T E (1996). "Textual Gateways: the Javanese Manuscript Tradition". In Ann Kumar; John H. McGlynn (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/illuminationswri0000kuma"><i>Illuminations: The Writing Traditions of Indonesia</i></a>. Jakarta: Lontar Foundation. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0834803496</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEverson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Everson, Michael (6 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210916231034/http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3319.pdf">"Proposal for encoding the Javanese script in the UCS"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Iso/Iec Jtc1/Sc2/Wg2</i> (N3319R3). Unicode. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3319.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKiliaan1897" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kiliaan, H. N. (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J2lMAAAAYAAJ"><i>Madoereesche Spraakkunst</i></a> (in Dutch). Batavia: Landsdrukkerij.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMolen1993" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Molen, Willem van der (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8FNTAAAACAAJ&q=javaans+schrift">"Javaans Schrift"</a>. <i>Vakgroep Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en Oceanië, Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden</i> (in Dutch). Semaian 8. Leiden: Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>90-73084-09-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMolen2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Molen, Willem van der (2000). "Hoe Heft Zulks Kunnen Geschieden? Het Begin van de Javaanse Typografie". In Willem van der Molen (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TQjZAAAAMAAJ"><i>Woord en Schrift in de Oost. De betekenis van zending en missie voor de studie van taal en literatuur in Zuidoost-Azie</i></a> (in Dutch). Vol. Semaian 19. Leiden: Vakgroep Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en Oceanië, Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden. pp. <span class="nowrap">132–</span>162. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9074956238</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMoriyama1996" class="citation journal cs1">Moriyama, Mikihiro (June 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kyoto-seas.org/pdf/34/1/340108.pdf">"Discovering the 'Language' and the 'Literature' of West Java: An Introduction to the Formation of Sundanese Writing in 19th Century West Java"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Southeast Asian Studies</i>. <b>34</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">151–</span>183.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRobson2011" class="citation journal cs1">Robson, Stuart Owen (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.monash.edu/en/publications/javanese-script-as-cultural-artifact-historical-background">"Javanese script as cultural artifact: Historical background"</a>. <i>RIMA: Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs</i>. <b>45</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">9–</span>36.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRochkyatmo1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rochkyatmo, Amir (1 January 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/7638/1/PELESTARIAN%20DAN%20MODERNISASI%20AKSARA%20DAERAH.pdf"><i>Pelestarian dan Modernisasi Aksara Daerah: Perkembangan Metode dan Teknis Menulis Aksara Jawa</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Indonesian). Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Orthographical_guides">Orthographical guides</h4></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFKoemisi_Kasoesastran_ing_Sriwedari,_Soerakarta1926" class="citation conference cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Koemisi Kasoesastran ing Sriwedari, Soerakarta (1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B3vMqqJNU5HOd3p3ZHFveGpHZW8/view"><i>Wawaton Panjeratipoen Temboeng Djawi mawi Sastra Djawi dalasan Angka</i></a>. Kongres Sriwedari (in Javanese). Weltevreden: Landsdrukkerij.</cite> Also known as <i>Wewaton Sriwedari</i> and <i>Paugeran Sriwedari</i>.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDarusuprapta2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Darusuprapta (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://luk.tsipil.ugm.ac.id/bahasa/Jawa/1996-PedomanPenulisanAksaraJawa.pdf"><i>Pedoman Penulisan Aksara Jawa</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Indonesian). Yogyakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Nusantara bekerja sama dengan Pemerintahan Provinsi Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, Daerah Tingkat I Jawa Tengah, dan Daerah Tingkat I Jawa Tengah. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>979-8628-00-4</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<p>Sanskrit and Kawi

</p>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFPoerwadarminta1930" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Poerwadarminta, W J S (1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B4eJ6BhvZbrNZkU2elBWQlRfWHM/view"><i>Serat Mardi Kawi</i></a> (in Javanese). Vol. 1. Solo: De Bliksem.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPoerwadarminta1931" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Poerwadarminta, W J S (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B4eJ6BhvZbrNaWRUaldrMU94V1E/view"><i>Serat Mardi Kawi</i></a> (in Javanese). Vol. 2. Solo: De Bliksem.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPoerwadarminta1931" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Poerwadarminta, W J S (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B4eJ6BhvZbrNdXpQR3hZS292Uzg/view"><i>Serat Mardi Kawi</i></a> (in Javanese). Vol. 3. Solo: De Bliksem.</cite></li></ul>

<p>Sundanese

</p>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFHolle1862" class="citation book cs1">Holle, K F (1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AupPpeV6EZUC&q=Soendasch+spel-+en+lees+boek,+met+Soendasche+letter&pg=PP18"><i>Soendasch spel- en lees boek, met Soendasche letter</i></a>. Batavia: Lands-drukkerij.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Javanese_script" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Javanese script">Javanese script</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Manuscripts_in_Javanese_script" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Manuscripts in Javanese script">Manuscripts in Javanese script</a></span>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Printed_Javanese_Script" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Printed Javanese Script">Printed Javanese Script</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_collection">Digital collection</h3></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/">British Library manuscript collection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220109182644/https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/">Archived</a> 9 January 2022 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://khastara.perpusnas.go.id/">National Library of Indonesia manuscript collection</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sastra.org/katalog">Yayasan Sastra Lestari manuscript collection</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://widyapustaka.webnode.com/paugeran/">Widyapustaka references collection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211214103733/https://widyapustaka.webnode.com/paugeran/">Archived</a> 14 December 2021 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digitized_manuscripts">Digitized manuscripts</h3></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Sloane_MS_1403E">A debt written on a piece of lontar</a> (1708) British Library collection no. Sloane MS 1403E</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=MSS_Jav_36"><i>Babad Mataram</i> and <i>Babad ing Sangkala</i></a> (1738) koleksi British Library no. MSS Jav 36</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=MSS_Malay_A_3">A Malay-Javanese-Maduran language word list</a> from early 19th century, British Library collection no. MSS Malay A 3</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Add_MS_12341">An assortment of documents from the Kraton of Yogyakarta</a> (1786–1812) British Library collection no. Add Ms 12341</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Or_15932"><i>Papakem Pawukon</i></a> from Bupati Sepuh Demak of Bogor (1814) British Library collection no. Or 15932</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Add_MS_12337"><i>Wejangan Hamengkubuwana I</i></a> (1812) British Library collection no. Add MS 12337</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Add_MS_45273"><i>Raffles Paper</i> - vol III</a> (1816) a collection of Letters received by <a href="Thomas_Stamford_Raffles" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Stamford Raffles">Raffles</a> from the rules of the Malay archipelago, British Library collection no. Add MS 45273</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=MSS_Jav_24"><i>Serat Jaya Lengkara Wulang</i></a> (1803) British Library collection no. MSS Jav 24</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=MSS_Jav_28"><i>Serat Selarasa</i></a> (1804) British Library collection no. MSS Jav 28</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://khastara.perpusnas.go.id/web/detail/335633/usana"><i>Usana Bali</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200619221833/http://khastara.perpusnas.go.id/web/detail/335633/usana">Archived</a> 19 June 2020 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1870) a Javanese copy of a Balinese lontar of the same title, National Library of Indonesia collection no. CS 152</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0hm2yOwsEgkC">Dongèng-dongèng Pieuntengen</a> (1867) a collection of Sundanese tales written in Javanese script compiled by <a href="Muhammad_Musa" title="Muhammad Musa">Muhammad Musa</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3319.pdf">Unicode proposal for Javanese script</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210916231034/http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3319.pdf">Archived</a> 16 September 2021 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3319.pdf">Unicode documentation for the behavior of KERET diacritic</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210916231034/http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3319.pdf">Archived</a> 16 September 2021 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17038-cakra.pdf">Unicode documentation for the behavior of CAKRA diacritic</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2019/19083-javanese-pengkal.pdf">Unicode documentation for the behavior of PENGKAL diacritic</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2019/19003-javanese-tolong.pdf">Unicode documentation for the behavior of TOLONG diacritic</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/javanese/">British Library Asian-African Studies blog, Javanese topic</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bennylin.github.io/transliterasijawa/">Javanese script transliterator by Benny Lin</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hana.js.org/">Hana - Javanese Script Transliterator by Dan</a></li>

<li>Download Javanese fonts in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/jawaunicode/main-page">Tuladha Jejeg</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211027132347/https://sites.google.com/site/jawaunicode/main-page">Archived</a> 27 October 2021 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aksaradinusantara.com/fonta/aksara/jawa">Aksara di Nusantara</a>, or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/get/noto/">Google Noto</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kawi_family55" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Kawi_family55" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi family</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indonesia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li>

<li><a href="Komering_script" title="Komering script">Komering</a></li>

<li><a href="Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a> (<a href="Lontara_Bilang-bilang_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lontara Bilang-bilang script">Bilang-bilang</a>)</li>